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🇷🇺 Russia · Kurgan
Eneolithic Chalcolithic; Khvalynsk pre-Yamnaya · Khvalynsk culture (Volga Eneolithic) → Repin → Yamnaya
Volga Eneolithic type cemetery (200 graves, 4700–3900 BCE) — Khvalynsk culture copper maces, ochre burials and earliest steppe horse sacrifice, pre-Yamnaya origin.
🇷🇺 Russia · Kurgan
Late Yamnaya → Catacomb → Srubnaya · Yamnaya → Catacomb Grave culture → Srubnaya (Timber Grave)
Kalmyk steppe Catacomb Grave kurgans (2800–2200 BCE) with shaft-and-niche chambers cut into Yamnaya mounds — post-Yamnaya chariot horizon and ‘caterpillar’ pottery.
🇷🇺 Russia · Kurgan
Late Bronze Age; Srubnaya post-Catacomb · Catacomb → Srubnaya (Timber Grave) → Andronovo influence
Ilek River Srubnaya cemetery (1800–1200 BCE) with timber-framed ‘srub’ grave chambers, grooved pottery and Late Bronze steppe pastoral expansion.
🇷🇺 Russia · Kurgan
Neolithic–Eneolithic; Samara forager to stock-herder · Samara culture (Volga Neolithic) → Khvalynsk → Yamnaya
Volga Neolithic Samara type sites (5500–4800 BCE) — pit-house villages and Mariupol cemeteries on Sokol bend, defining early steppe pottery and forager transition.
