🇬🇭 Ghana · Fortress
Bono Manso Rock Citadel (Adansi–Bono Hill Fort)
Medieval Akan (Bono) (11th–18th c. CE) · Akan (Bono–Adansi)
Granite dome fortress refuge of Bono state with white dot art shelters.
🇦🇲 Armenia · Ancient city
Armavir (Argishtikhinili)
Urartian 776 BCE to Orontid Hellenistic (to 2nd c. BCE) · Urartu → Orontid Armenia → Hellenistic
Two citadels (D-A Mound): Argishti I fortress Argishtikhinili built atop Metsamor EB hill, rock-cut canal from Araxes still visible, later Hellenistic wall with Aramaic ostraca of Erivan, mythic…
🇸🇾 Syria · Archaeological wonder
Krak des Chevaliers
Crusader to Mamluk (11th c Kurdish fort; Hospitaller 1142–1271; Mamluk after 1271) · Kurdish / Frankish (Hospitaller) / Mamluk
Paradigmatic concentric Crusader castle, Krak des Chevaliers was built by Kurdish emir and expanded by Knights Hospitaller 1142–1271.
🇵🇪 Peru · Pyramid
Pampa Grande Pyramid (Huaca Fortaleza)
Late Moche (Moche V, 600–750) · Moche (Late Moche Galindo-Pampa Grande)
Latest Moche capital Pampa Grande (600–750 CE): 38 m Huaca Fortaleza mudbrick pyramid (~290k m³) with hilltop fortress and 1200 workshops, final Moche mega-city.
🇱🇹 Lithuania · Fortress
Trakai Island Castle
Medieval (1377–1430) · Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Gediminid)
The only surviving water castle in Eastern Europe, built on 2 ha island in Lake Galvė by Grand Dukes Kęstutis and Vytautas the Great (c.1377–1409) as fortified residence.
🇹🇳 Tunisia · Ancient city
Thala (Plateau Fortress)
Numidian to Byzantine (2nd c. BCE–7th c. CE) · Numidian / Roman / Byzantine
High-plateau Jugurthine citadel (1,017 m) with Byzantine pentagon fort.
🇱🇻 Latvia · Fortress
Koknese Castle
Medieval (1205–1701) · Latgalian then Livonian Order
Episcopal stone castle at Koknese island fortress at confluence of Daugava and Pērse (Latgalian hillfort predecessor Kukonoyse), founded 1205 by Bishop Albert after grant by King Vetseke of Koknese,…
🇱🇹 Lithuania · Fortress
Vilnius Upper Castle (Gediminas Hill)
Medieval (13th century–1394) · Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Hillfort-origin Upper Castle on 48 m Gediminas Hill at Neris–Vilnia confluence, founded where Grand Duke Gediminas' dream of an iron wolf howling led to capital 1323.
🇳🇬 Nigeria · Fortress
Katsina Hillfort of Dutsin Ma
Medieval Hausa to Sokoto period (13th–19th c. CE) · Hausa (Katsina)
Granite inselberg hillfort south of Katsina with rock gongs.
🇩🇿 Algeria · Fortress
Castellum Dimmidi (El Hadjira Outpost)
Roman (198–260 CE) · Roman (Numidia, Severan frontier)
Southernmost Roman desert burgus near El Hadjira with Palmyrene ostraca.
🇦🇲 Armenia · Fortress
Horom Citadel
Late Bronze to medieval (c.1600 BCE – 1200 CE) · Trialeti–Van kingdom → Armenian medieval
65-ha hillfort on Gyumri–Yerevan highway with 13-m Cyclopean walls, Late Bronze chamber-tombs, Early Iron “Horom pottery” type site, Urartian re-occupation and Armenian 10th-century basilica.
🇩🇿 Algeria · Ancient city
Tigisis (Aïn el-Bordj)
Roman to Byzantine (1st–7th c. CE) · Numidian / Roman-Christian (Donatist/Catholic)
Episcopal twin-church city in Souk Ahras hills with schism basilicas.
🇩🇿 Algeria · Fortress
Thubunae Outlier – Henchir Ksar Bou Saad
Roman to Byzantine (2nd–7th c. CE) · Roman (Numidia)
Outlier fortlet of Thubunae on Hodna rim with 6-tower enceinte.
🇮🇷 Iran · Ancient city
Sagzabad
Iron Age II–III (c.1200–550 BCE) · Iranian Iron (Persian pre-history)
Qazvin plain Iron Age type-site: four-period red-slipped citadel with storeroom jars red-burnished late Bronze to Iron I transition, “Sagzabad Ware”.
🇩🇿 Algeria · Fortress
Gemellae South Bastion (El Kasbat Ridge)
Roman (Hadrian to Diocletian) · Roman (Numidia, Fossatum)
Fossatum Africae southern rampart and ditch bastion south of Gemellae.
🇦🇲 Armenia · Fortress
Karmir Blur (Teishebaini)
Urartian (c.685–590 BCE Rusa II) · Urartu → post-Urartian Scythian
Huge fortress (300 × 200 m) with massive ashlar rampart, beer brewery vats, inscribed bronze shields, Teisheba tower and a lower town archive of cattle tribute.
🇩🇿 Algeria · Ancient city
Tatilti (Aïn Touta) – Mountain Refuge
Numidian to Byzantine (3rd c. BCE–7th c. CE) · Numidian / Roman / Berber
Aurès pass city with bazina tumuli and thermal baths.
🇳🇬 Nigeria · Fortress
Gobir Citadel of Gidan Sabon Birni
Sokoto period (19th c. CE; Gobir resistance) · Hausa (Gobir)
Late Gobir fortified birni (4.2 km) after 1808 fall of Al Kalawa.
🇱🇹 Lithuania · Fortress
Kaunas Castle
Medieval (1361–1441) · Grand Duchy of Lithuania / Teutonic
Oldest brick castle in Lithuania (1361) at strategic Nemunas–Neris island, first to use brick to resist Teutonic cannon; destroyed 1362 by Teutonic Knights (3-week siege), rebuilt by Vytautas 1409 as…
🇸🇪 Sweden · Fortress
Lojsta Hall (Lojsta Slott)
Iron Age–Medieval (900–1361 CE) · Gotlandic Iron Age / Medieval
Reconstructed water fortress hall at Lojsta Slott on a small lake islet (Lojsta) in central Gotland, with causeway, timber hall 40 m and later stone tower.
🇱🇾 Libya · Fortress
Boreum South Tower (Bu Grada South)
Roman to Byzantine (3rd–7th c. CE) · Roman (Tripolitana/Syrte)
Salt-pan watchtower south of Boreum with sebkha causeway.
🇮🇷 Iran · Fortress
Qaleh Rostam
Neolithic to Achaemenid (c.7000 BCE–330 BCE; Achaemenid fortress c.550 BCE) · Neolithic Bakhtiari → Achaemenid pastoral fortress
Bolaghi valley Achaemenid route fortress (550 BCE) over Neolithic knoll between Pasargadae and Persepolis.
🇩🇿 Algeria · Fortress
Ad Maiores
Roman to Byzantine (104 CE–7th c. CE) · Roman
Trajanic desert camp 130×80 m anchoring Fossatum Negrine segment.